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Explain What a Subduction Zone Is and How It Is Related to Volcanism.

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A geological process at convergent tectonic plate boundaries where one plate moves nether the other

Diagram of the geological process of subduction

Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's mantle at convergent boundaries. Where the oceanic lithosphere of a tectonic plate converges with the less dense lithosphere of a 2d plate, the heavier plate dives beneath the second plate and sinks into the pall. A region where this process occurs is known every bit a subduction zone, and its surface expression is known as an arc-trench complex. The process of subduction has created almost of the Earth'southward continental chaff.[i] Rates of subduction are typically measured in centimeters per year, with the average charge per unit of convergence being approximately two to eight centimeters per year along nigh plate boundaries.[2]

Subduction is possible considering the cold oceanic lithosphere is slightly denser than the underlying asthenosphere, the hot, ductile layer in the upper drapery underlying the cold, rigid lithosphere. Once initiated, stable subduction is driven mostly by the negative buoyancy of the dense subducting lithosphere. The slab sinks into the drape largely under its weight.[3]

Earthquakes are common along the subduction zone, and fluids released past the subducting plate trigger volcanism in the overriding plate. If the subducting plate sinks at a shallow angle, the overriding plate develops a belt of deformation characterized by crustal thickening, mount building, and metamorphism. Subduction at a steeper bending is characterized past the germination of dorsum-arc basins.[iv]

Subduction and plate tectonics [edit]

Co-ordinate to the theory of plate tectonics, the Globe'south lithosphere, its rigid outer shell, is cleaved into sixteen larger tectonic plates and several smaller plates. These are in slow motion, due to convection in the underlying ductile mantle. This process of convection allows heat generated by radioactive decay to escape from the World'south interior.[5]

The lithosphere consists of the outermost light crust plus the uppermost rigid portion of the drape. Oceanic lithosphere ranges in thickness from only a few km for immature lithosphere created at mid-ocean ridges to around 100 km (62 mi) for the oldest oceanic lithosphere.[6] Continental lithosphere is up to 200 km (120 mi) thick.[7] The lithosphere is relatively cold and rigid compared with the underlying asthenosphere, then tectonic plates move as solid bodies atop the asthenosphere. Private plates often include both regions of the oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere.

Subduction zones are where the common cold oceanic lithosphere sinks back into the pall and is recycled.[4] [eight] They are constitute at convergent plate boundaries, where the oceanic lithosphere of one plate converges with the less dense lithosphere of another plate. The heavier oceanic lithosphere is overridden past the leading edge of the other plate.[6] The overridden plate (the slab) sinks at an angle of approximately twenty-five to seventy-five degrees to Earth'southward surface.[nine] This sinking is driven past the temperature difference between the slab and the surrounding asthenosphere, every bit the colder oceanic lithosphere has, on average, a greater density.[6] Sediments and some trapped water are carried downwards by the slab and recycled into the deep drapery.[ten]

Earth is so far the simply planet where subduction is known to occur, and subduction zones are its most of import tectonic feature. Subduction is the driving force behind plate tectonics, and without it, plate tectonics could not occur.[11] Oceanic subduction zones are located along 55,000 km (34,000 mi) of convergent plate margins,[12] almost equal to the cumulative sixty,000 km (37,000 mi) of mid-bounding main ridges.[xiii]

Structure of subduction zones [edit]

Arc-trench complex [edit]

The surface expression of subduction zones are arc-trench complexes. On the ocean side of the circuitous, where the subducting plate first approaches the subduction zone, in that location is frequently an outer trench loftier or outer trench swell. Here the plate shallows slightly earlier plunging downwards, as a consequence of the rigidity of the plate.[14] The point where the slab begins to plunge downwards is marked by an oceanic trench. Oceanic trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean flooring.

Across the trench is the forearc portion of the overriding plate. Depending on sedimentation rates, the forearc may include an accretionary wedge of sediments scraped off the subducting slab and accreted to the overriding plate. However, not all arc-trench complexes accept an accretionary wedge. Accretionary arcs have a well-developed forearc bowl behind the accretionary wedge, while the forearc basin is poorly developed in non-accretionary arcs.[15]

Beyond the forearc basin, volcanoes are constitute in long chains called volcanic arcs. The subducting basalt and sediment are commonly rich in hydrous minerals and clays. Additionally, big quantities of water are introduced into cracks and fractures created every bit the subducting slab bends downward.[16] During the transition from basalt to eclogite, these hydrous materials interruption down, producing copious quantities of water, which at such great pressure and temperature exists as a supercritical fluid.[17] The supercritical water, which is hot and more buoyant than the surrounding rock, rises into the overlying mantle, where it lowers the melting temperature of the mantle stone, generating magma via flux melting.[18] The magmas, in plough, rise every bit diapirs considering they are less dense than the rocks of the mantle.[19] The mantle-derived magmas (which are initially basaltic in composition) tin ultimately reach the Earth'southward surface, resulting in volcanic eruptions. The chemical limerick of the erupting lava depends upon the caste to which the drapery-derived basalt interacts with (melts) World's crust or undergoes partial crystallization. Arc volcanoes tend to produce dangerous eruptions considering they are rich in water (from the slab and sediments) and tend to be extremely explosive.[20] Krakatoa, Nevado del Ruiz, and Mount Vesuvius are all examples of arc volcanoes. Arcs are likewise associated with most ore deposits.[xix]

Beyond the volcanic arc is a back-arc region whose character depends strongly on the bending of subduction of the subducting slab. Where this angle is shallow, the subducting slab drags the overlying continental crust, producing a zone of pinch in which there may be extensive folding and thrust faulting. If the angle of subduction is deep, the crust will be put in tension instead, oft producing a dorsum-arc basin.[21]

Deep structure [edit]

The arc-trench complex is the surface expression of a much deeper structure. Though non directly attainable, the deeper portions can be studied using geophysics and geochemistry. Subduction zones are defined past an inclined zone of earthquakes, the Wadati–Benioff zone, that dips away from the trench and extends downwardly to the 660-kilometer discontinuity. Subduction zone earthquakes occur at greater depths (upwardly to 600 km (370 mi)) than elsewhere on Earth (typically less than 20 km (12 mi) depth); such deep earthquakes may be driven past deep phase transformations, thermal runaway, or dehydration embrittlement.[22] [23] Seismic tomography shows that some slabs can penetrate the lower drapery[24] [25] and sink articulate to the core–mantle purlieus.[26] Hither the remainder of the slabs may eventually heat enough to ascension back to the surface as pall plumes.[27] [28]

Subduction bending [edit]

Subduction typically occurs at a moderately steep angle right at the point of the convergent plate purlieus. Nevertheless, anomalous shallower angles of subduction are known to be besides as some that are extremely steep.[29]

  • Flat slab subduction (subducting angle less than thirty°) occurs when the slab subducts nearly horizontally. The relatively apartment slab can extend for hundreds of kilometers. That is abnormal, every bit the dumbo slab typically sinks at a much steeper angle. Because subduction of slabs to depth is necessary to drive subduction zone volcanism, apartment-slab subduction can exist invoked to explain volcanic gaps.

Flat-slab subduction is ongoing beneath part of the Andes, causing segmentation of the Andean Volcanic Belt into 4 zones. The flat-slab subduction in northern Peru and the Norte Chico region of Chile is believed to be the issue of the subduction of ii buoyant aseismic ridges, the Nazca Ridge and the Juan Fernández Ridge, respectively. Around Taitao Peninsula flat-slab subduction is attributed to the subduction of the Chile Rise, a spreading ridge.[30] [31]

The Laramide Orogeny in the Rocky Mountains of the United States is attributed to flat-slab subduction.[32] During this orogeny, a broad volcanic gap appeared at the southwestern margin of North America, and deformation occurred much farther inland; it was during this fourth dimension that the basement-cored mountain ranges of Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, S Dakota, and New United mexican states came into being. The almost massive subduction zone earthquakes, so-chosen "megaquakes", have been found to occur in flat-slab subduction zones.[33]

  • Steep-angle subduction (subducting angle greater than 70°) occurs in subduction zones where Earth's oceanic crust and lithosphere are old and thick and have, therefore, lost buoyancy. The steepest dipping subduction zone lies in the Mariana Trench, which is also where the oceanic crust, of Jurassic age, is the oldest on Earth exempting ophiolites. Steep-angle subduction is, in contrast to flat-slab subduction, associated with back-arc extension[34] of chaff, creating volcanic arcs and pulling fragments of continental chaff abroad from continents to leave backside a marginal bounding main.

Life bike of subduction zones [edit]

Initiation of subduction [edit]

Although stable subduction is fairly well understood, the process by which subduction is initiated remains a thing of give-and-take and continuing study. Subduction can begin spontaneously if the denser oceanic lithosphere can founder and sink beneath the adjacent oceanic or continental lithosphere through vertical forcing merely; alternatively, existing plate motions can induce new subduction zones past horizontally forcing the oceanic lithosphere to rupture and sink into the asthenosphere.[35] [36] Both models tin can eventually yield cocky-sustaining subduction zones, equally the oceanic crust is metamorphosed at bully depth and becomes denser than the surrounding mantle rocks. The compilation of subduction zone initiation events back to 100 Ma suggests horizontally-forced subduction zone initiation for virtually modern subduction zones,[36] which is supported by results from numerical models[37] [38] and geologic studies.[39] [forty] Some analogue modeling shows, however, the possibility of spontaneous subduction from inherent density differences between 2 plates at specific locations similar passive margins.[41] [42] In that location is evidence this has taken identify in the Izu-Bonin-Mariana subduction system.[43] [44] Earlier in Earth's history, subduction is likely to accept initiated without horizontal forcing due to the lack of relative plate motility, though an unorthodox proposal by A. Yin suggests that meteorite impacts may take contributed to subduction initiation on early Earth.[45]

End of subduction [edit]

Subduction tin can go on as long every bit the oceanic lithosphere moves into the subduction zone. Yet, the arrival of buoyant crust at a subduction zone can event in its failure, past disrupting downwelling. The inflow of continental chaff results in a collision or terrane accretion that disrupts subduction.[46] Continental chaff can subduct to depths of 100 km (62 mi) or more just and then resurfaces.[47] [28] Sections of crustal or intraoceanic arc crust greater than 15 km (9.iii mi) in thickness or oceanic plateau greater than 30 km (xix mi) in thickness can disrupt subduction. Yet, island arcs subducted end-on may cause only local disruption, while an arc arriving parallel to the zone can shut it down.[46] This has happened with the Ontong Java Plateau and the Vitiaz Trench.[48]

Effects [edit]

Metamorphism [edit]

Subduction zones host a unique variety of rock types created past the high-pressure, depression-temperature conditions a subducting slab encounters during its descent.[49] The metamorphic conditions the slab passes through in this process creates and destroys water bearing (hydrous) mineral phases, releasing water into the mantle. This water lowers the melting point of mantle rock, initiating melting.[fifty] Understanding the timing and weather condition in which these aridity reactions occur, is key to interpreting mantle melting, volcanic arc magmatism, and the formation of continental chaff.[51]

A metamorphic facies is characterized past a stable mineral assemblage specific to a force per unit area-temperature range and specific starting material. Subduction zone metamorphism is characterized by a low temperature, high-ultrahigh pressure level metamorphic path through the zeolite, prehnite-pumpellyite, blueschist, and eclogite facies stability zones of subducted oceanic crust.[52] Zeolite and prehnite-pumpellyite facies assemblages may or may not exist nowadays, thus the onset of metamorphism may only be marked by blueschist facies conditions.[53] Subducting slabs are composed of basaltic crust topped with pelagic sediments;[54] all the same, the pelagic sediments may be accreted onto the forearc-hanging wall and not subducted.[55] Virtually metamorphic phase transitions that occur within the subducting slab are prompted by the dehydration of hydrous mineral phases. The breakup of hydrous mineral phases typically occurs at depths greater than 10 km.[56] Each of these metamorphic facies is marked by the presence of a specific stable mineral aggregation, recording the metamorphic conditions undergone just the subducting slab. Transitions betwixt facies causes hydrous minerals to dehydrate at certain pressure-temperature conditions and tin can therefore be tracked to melting events in the drape beneath a volcanic arc.

Volcanic activity [edit]

Volcanoes that occur above subduction zones, such as Mount St. Helens, Mountain Etna, and Mount Fuji, lie approximately ane hundred kilometers from the trench in arcuate chains chosen volcanic arcs. Two kinds of arcs are generally observed on Earth: island arcs that grade on the oceanic lithosphere (for example, the Mariana and the Tonga isle arcs), and continental arcs such equally the Cascade Volcanic Arc, that course forth the coast of continents. Island arcs (intraoceanic or primitive arcs) are produced by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere below another oceanic lithosphere (ocean-ocean subduction) while continental arcs (Andean arcs) form during the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continental lithosphere (ocean-continent subduction).[57] An case of a volcanic arc having both isle and continental arc sections is found behind the Aleutian Trench subduction zone in Alaska.[58]

The arc magmatism occurs one hundred to two hundred kilometers from the trench and approximately ane hundred kilometers above the subducting slab. This depth of arc magma generation is the consequence of the interaction between hydrous fluids, released from the subducting slab, and the arc drapery wedge that is hot enough to melt with the addition of water.[59] Information technology has besides been suggested that the mixing of fluids from a subducted tectonic plate and melted sediment is already occurring at the summit of the slab before any mixing with the drape takes place.[lx]

Arcs produce most 10% of the total volume of magma produced each year on Earth (approximately 0.75 cubic kilometers), much less than the volume produced at mid-ocean ridges,[61] but they have formed about continental crust.[4] Arc volcanism has the greatest impact on humans because many arc volcanoes prevarication above sea level and erupt violently. Aerosols injected into the stratosphere during trigger-happy eruptions can cause rapid cooling of Globe'southward climate and touch air travel.[59]

Earthquakes and tsunamis [edit]

Global map of subduction zones, with subducted slabs contoured by depth

The strains acquired by plate convergence in subduction zones cause at least three types of earthquakes. These are deep earthquakes, megathrust earthquakes, and outer rise earthquakes.

Anomalously deep events are a characteristic of subduction zones, which produce the deepest quakes on the planet. Earthquakes are by and large restricted to the shallow, brittle parts of the crust, generally at depths of less than 20 kilometers. However, in subduction zones, quakes occur at depths as great equally 700 km (430 mi). These quakes define inclined zones of seismicity known as Wadati–Benioff zones which trace the descending slab.[62]

Nine of the ten largest earthquakes of the last 100 years were subduction zone megathrust earthquakes, which included the 1960 Great Chilean convulsion, which, at M 9.five, was the largest earthquake ever recorded; the 2004 Indian Ocean convulsion and seismic sea wave; and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The subduction of cold oceanic crust into the pall depresses the local geothermal slope and causes a larger portion of Earth to deform in a more brittle fashion than information technology would in a normal geothermal gradient setting. Because earthquakes can occur simply when a rock is deforming in a brittle fashion, subduction zones can cause large earthquakes. If such a quake causes rapid deformation of the bounding main floor, there is potential for tsunamis, such as the earthquake caused past subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate nether the Euro-Asian Plate on Dec 26, 2004, that devastated the areas effectually the Indian Ocean. Small tremors which cause modest, nondamaging tsunamis, likewise occur often.[62]

A study published in 2016 suggested a new parameter to make up one's mind a subduction zone's power to generate mega-earthquakes.[63] By examining subduction zone geometry and comparing the degree of curvature of the subducting plates in peachy historical earthquakes such as the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, it was determined that the magnitude of earthquakes in subduction zones is inversely proportional to the caste of the error's curvature, meaning that "the flatter the contact between the two plates, the more likely it is that mega-earthquakes will occur."[64]

Outer rising earthquakes occur when normal faults oceanward of the subduction zone are activated by flexure of the plate as it bends into the subduction zone.[65] The 2009 Samoa earthquake is an example of this type of issue. Deportation of the sea floor caused by this event generated a 6-meter tsunami in nearby Samoa.

Seismic tomography has helped detect subducted lithosphere, slabs, deep in the curtain where there are no earthquakes. About one hundred slabs take been described in terms of depth and their timing and location of subduction.[66] The great seismic discontinuities in the mantle, at 410 km (250 mi) depth and 670 km (420 mi), are disrupted past the descent of common cold slabs in deep subduction zones. Some subducted slabs seem to have difficulty penetrating the major discontinuity that marks the boundary between the upper mantle and lower curtain at a depth of about 670 kilometers. Other subducted oceanic plates accept sunk to the core–curtain purlieus at 2890 km depth. Generally, slabs decelerate during their descent into the mantle, from typically several cm/yr (up to ~10 cm/twelvemonth in some cases) at the subduction zone and in the uppermost curtain, to ~1 cm/yr in the lower mantle.[66] This leads to either folding or stacking of slabs at those depths, visible as thickened slabs in Seismic tomography. Below ~1700 km, there might be a express dispatch of slabs due to lower viscosity as a issue of inferred mineral phase changes until they approach and finally stall at the cadre–mantle boundary.[66] Here the slabs are heated up by the ambient heat and are not detected anymore ~300 Myr later on subduction.[66]

Orogeny [edit]

Orogeny is the process of mountain building. Subducting plates tin can lead to orogeny by bringing oceanic islands, oceanic plateaus, and sediments to convergent margins. The cloth ofttimes does not subduct with the rest of the plate simply instead is accreted (scraped off) to the continent, resulting in exotic terranes. The collision of this oceanic material causes crustal thickening and mountain-edifice. The accreted material is often referred to as an accretionary wedge or prism. These accretionary wedges can be identified by ophiolites (uplifted bounding main crust consisting of sediments, pillow basalts, sheeted dykes, gabbro, and peridotite).[67]

Subduction may also cause orogeny without bringing in oceanic textile that collides with the overriding continent. When the subducting plate subducts at a shallow angle underneath a continent (something called "flat-slab subduction"), the subducting plate may take enough traction on the lesser of the continental plate to cause the upper plate to contract to lead to folding, faulting, crustal thickening, and mount edifice. Flat-slab subduction causes mount edifice and volcanism moving into the continent, away from the trench, and has been described in N America (i.east. Laramide orogeny), South America, and Eastward Asia.[66]

The processes described to a higher place allow subduction to continue while mountain edifice happens progressively, which is in dissimilarity to continent-continent collision orogeny, which often leads to the termination of subduction.

Beginnings of subduction on Globe [edit]

Modern-mode subduction is characterized by depression geothermal gradients and the associated germination of high-pressure low-temperature rocks such as eclogite and blueschist.[68] [69] Too, stone assemblages called ophiolites, associated with modernistic-style subduction, as well indicate such weather condition.[68] Eclogite xenoliths found in the North China Craton provide evidence that modern-style subduction occurred at to the lowest degree equally early as ane.8 Ga ago in the Paleoproterozoic Era.[68] Withal, the eclogite itself was produced by oceanic subduction during the assembly of supercontinents at about 1.nine–two.0 Ga.

Blueschist is a rock typical for present-day subduction settings. The absenteeism of blueschist older than Neoproterozoic reflects more magnesium-rich compositions of Earth's oceanic crust during that menses.[70] These more magnesium-rich rocks metamorphose into greenschist at weather condition when modern oceanic crust rocks metamorphose into blueschist.[70] The aboriginal magnesium-rich rocks mean that World's mantle was once hotter, just non that subduction conditions were hotter. Previously, the lack of pre-Neoproterozoic blueschist was thought to indicate a different blazon of subduction.[seventy] Both lines of evidence refute previous conceptions of modern-fashion subduction having been initiated in the Neoproterozoic Era one.0 Ga agone.[68] [70]

History of investigation [edit]

Harry Hammond Hess, who during World War 2 served in the United States Navy Reserve and became fascinated in the ocean flooring, studied the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and proposed that hot molten rock was added to the crust at the ridge and expanded the seafloor outward. This theory was to become known as seafloor spreading. Since the Earth'due south circumference has not changed over geologic time, Hess concluded that older seafloor has to exist consumed somewhere else, and suggested that this process takes identify at oceanic trenches, where the chaff would exist melted and recycled in the Globe's drape.[71]

In 1964, George Plafker researched the Good Friday earthquake in Alaska. He ended that the cause of the earthquake was a megathrust reaction in the Aleutian Trench, a result of the Alaskan continental crust overlapping the Pacific oceanic chaff. This meant that the Pacific crust was being forced downward, or subducted, beneath the Alaskan chaff. The concept of subduction would play a role in the development of the plate tectonics theory.[72]

Beginning geologic attestations of the "subduct" words date to 1970,[73] In ordinary English to subduct, or to subduce (from Latin subducere, "to atomic number 82 away")[74] are transitive verbs requiring a subject to perform an action on an object not itself, hither the lower plate, which has then been subducted ("removed"). The geological term is "consumed," which happens the geological moment the lower plate slips under, even though it may persist for some time until its remelting and dissipation. In this conceptual model, plate is continually existence used up.[75] The identity of the field of study, the consumer, or amanuensis of consumption, is left unstated. Some sources accept this subject-object construct.

Geology makes to subduct into an intransitive verb and a reflexive verb. The lower plate itself is the subject area. It subducts, in the sense of retreat, or removes itself, and while doing so, is the "subducting plate." Moreover, the word slab is specifically attached to the "subducting plate," even though in English the upper plate is just as much of a slab.[76] The upper plate is left hanging, then to speak. To express information technology geology must switch to a different verb, typically to override. The upper plate, the subject, performs the activeness of overriding the object, the lower plate, which is overridden.[77]

Importance [edit]

Subduction zones are of import for several reasons:

  • Subduction zone physics: Sinking of the oceanic lithosphere (sediments, crust, drapery), past the dissimilarity of density betwixt the cold and old lithosphere and the hot asthenospheric mantle wedge, is the strongest force (but not the only one) needed to drive plate motion and is the dominant mode of mantle convection.
  • Subduction zone chemical science: The subducted sediments and crust dehydrate and release h2o-rich (aqueous) fluids into the overlying mantle, causing mantle melting and fractionation of elements between the surface and deep mantle reservoirs, producing isle arcs and continental chaff. Hot fluids in subduction zones besides change the mineral compositions of the subducting sediments and potentially the habitability of the sediments for microorganisms.[78]
  • Subduction zones drag down subducted oceanic sediments, oceanic crust, and drape lithosphere that interact with the hot asthenospheric mantle from the over-riding plate to produce calc-alkaline metal serial melts, ore deposits, and continental crust.
  • Subduction zones pose pregnant threats to lives, belongings, economic vitality, cultural and natural resources, and quality of life. The tremendous magnitudes of earthquakes or volcanic eruptions can also have knock-on effects with global bear upon.[79]

Subduction zones have also been considered every bit possible disposal sites for radioactive waste in which the activeness of subduction itself would carry the textile into the planetary mantle, safely away from any possible influence on humanity or the surface environment. However, that method of disposal is currently banned past international agreement.[eighty] [81] [82] [83] Furthermore, plate subduction zones are associated with very large megathrust earthquakes, making the effects of using any specific site for disposal unpredictable and possibly agin to the safe of long-term disposal.[81]

Come across also [edit]

  • Compaction simulation
  • Divergent purlieus – Linear feature that exists betwixt 2 tectonic plates that are moving away from each other
  • Divergent double subduction – Tectonic process in which two parallel subduction zones with different directions are developed on the same oceanic plate
  • List of tectonic plate interactions – Definitions and examples of the interactions between the relatively mobile sections of the lithosphere
  • Obduction – Overthrusting of oceanic lithosphere onto continental lithosphere at a convergent plate boundary
  • Paired metamorphic belts – Sets of juxtaposed linear rock units that display contrasting metamorphic mineral assemblages
  • Ring of Fire – Region around the rim of the Pacific Ocean where many volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur
  • Slab window – Type of gap in a subducted oceanic plate
  • Wilson Cycle – Geophysical model of the opening and closing of rifts

References [edit]

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